Machine learning approaches for detecting parkinson’s disease from EEG analysis: a systematic review.

Background: Diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is mainly based on motor symptoms and can be supported by imaging techniques such as the single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or M-iodobenzyl-guanidine cardiac scintiscan (MIBG), which are expensive and not always available. In this review, we analyzed studies that used machine learning (ML) techniques to diagnose PD through resting state or motor activation electroencephalography (EEG) tests. Methods: The review process was performed following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. All publications previous to May 2020 were included, and their main characteristics and results were assessed and documented. Results: Nine studies were included. Seven used resting state EEG and two motor activation EEG. Subsymbolic models were used in 83.3% of studies. The accuracy for PD classification was 62–99.62%. There was no standard cleaning protocol for the EEG and a great heterogeneity in the characteristics that were extracted from the EEG. However, spectral characteristics predominated. Conclusions: Both the features introduced into the model and its architecture were essential for a good performance in predicting the classification. On the contrary, the cleaning protocol of the EEG, is highly heterogeneous among the different studies and did not influence the results. The use of ML techniques in EEG for neurodegenerative disorders classification is a recent and growing field.post-print1,30 M

Survey of Machine Learning Techniques in the Analysis of EEG Signals for Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review.

Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects 7–10 million people worldwide. Its diagnosis is clinical and can be supported by image-based tests, which are expensive and not always accessible. Electroencephalograms (EEG) are non-invasive, widely accessible, low-cost tests. However, the signals obtained are difficult to analyze visually, so advanced techniques, such as Machine Learning (ML), need to be used. In this article, we review those studies that consider ML techniques to study the EEG of patients with PD. Methods: The review process was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, which are used to provide quality standards for the objective evaluation of various studies. All publications before February 2022 were included, and their main characteristics and results were evaluated and documented through three key points associated with the development of ML techniques: dataset quality, data preprocessing, and model evaluation. Results: 59 studies were included. The predominating models were Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). In total, 31 articles diagnosed PD with a mean accuracy of 97.35 ± 3.46%. There was no standard cleaning protocol for EEG and a great heterogeneity in EEG characteristics was shown, although spectral features predominated by 88.37%. Conclusions: Neither the cleaning protocol nor the number of EEG channels influenced the classification results. A baseline value was provided for the PD diagnostic problem, although recent studies focus on the identification of cognitive impairment.post-print1392 K

Wearable Technology to Detect Motor Fluctuations in Parkinson’s Disease Patients: Current State and Challenges.

Monitoring of motor symptom fluctuations in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients is currently performed through the subjective self-assessment of patients. Clinicians require reliable information about a fluctuation’s occurrence to enable a precise treatment rescheduling and dosing adjustment. In this review, we analyzed the utilization of sensors for identifying motor fluctuations in PD patients and the application of machine learning techniques to detect fluctuations. The review process followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Ten studies were included between January 2010 and March 2021, and their main characteristics and results were assessed and documented. Five studies utilized daily activities to collect the data, four used concrete scenarios executing specific activities to gather the data, and only one utilized a combination of both situations. The accuracy for classification was 83.56–96.77%. In the studies evaluated, it was not possible to find a standard cleaning protocol for the signal captured, and there is significant heterogeneity in the models utilized and in the different features introduced in the models (using spatiotemporal characteristics, frequential characteristics, or both). The two most influential factors in the good performance of the classification problem are the type of features utilized and the type of model.post-print900 K

BERT Learns From Electroencephalograms About Parkinson's Disease: Transformer-Based Models for Aid Diagnosis.

Medicine is a complex field with highly trained specialists with extensive knowledge that continuously needs updating. Among them all, those who study the brain can perform complex tasks due to the structure of this organ. There are neurological diseases such as degenerative ones whose diagnoses are essential in very early stages. Parkinson’s disease is one of them, usually having a confirmed diagnosis when it is already very developed. Some physicians have proposed using electroencephalograms as a non-invasive method for a prompt diagnosis. The problem with these tests is that data analysis relies on the clinical eye of a very experienced professional, which entails situations that escape human perception. This research proposes the use of deep learning techniques in combination with electroencephalograms to develop a non-invasive method for Parkinson’s disease diagnosis. These models have demonstrated their good performance in managing massive amounts of data. Our main contribution is to apply models from the field of Natural Language Processing, particularly an adaptation of BERT models, for being the last milestone in the area. This model choice is due to the similarity between texts and electroencephalograms that can be processed as data sequences. Results show that the best model uses electroencephalograms of 64 channels from people without resting states and finger-tapping tasks. In terms of metrics, the model has values around 86%.post-print1134 K

Time Series Analysis Applied to EEG Shows Increased Global Connectivity during Motor Activation Detected in PD Patients Compared to Controls.

Background: Brain connectivity has shown to be a key characteristic in the study of both Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and the response of the patients to the dopaminergic medication. Time series analysis has been used here for the first time to study brain connectivity changes during motor activation in PD. Methods: A 64-channel EEG signal was registered during unilateral motor activation and resting-state in 6 non-demented PD patients before and after the administration of levodopa and in 6 matched healthy controls. Spectral entropy correlation, coherence, and interhemispheric divergence differences among PD patients and controls were analyzed under the assumption of stationarity of the time series. Results: During the motor activation test, PD patients showed an increased correlation coefficient (both hands p < 0.001) and a remarkable increase in coherence in all frequency range compared to the generalized reduction observed in controls (both hands p < 0.001). The Kullback–Leibler Divergence (KLD) of the Spectral Entropy between brain hemispheres was observed to increase in controls (right hand p = 0.01; left hand p = 0.015) and to decrease in PD patients (right hand p = 0.02; left hand p = 0.002) with motor activation. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the oscillatory activity of the different cortex areas within healthy brains is relatively independent of the rest. PD brains exhibit a stronger connectivity which grows during motor activation. The levodopa mitigates this anomalous performance.post-print2,22 M

Time Series Analysis Applied to EEG Shows Increased Global Connectivity during Motor Activation Detected in PD Patients Compared to Controls

Background: Brain connectivity has shown to be a key characteristic in the study of both Parkinson&rsquo;s Disease (PD) and the response of the patients to the dopaminergic medication. Time series analysis has been used here for the first time to study brain connectivity changes during motor activation in PD. Methods: A 64-channel EEG signal was registered during unilateral motor activation and resting-state in 6 non-demented PD patients before and after the administration of levodopa and in 6 matched healthy controls. Spectral entropy correlation, coherence, and interhemispheric divergence differences among PD patients and controls were analyzed under the assumption of stationarity of the time series. Results: During the motor activation test, PD patients showed an increased correlation coefficient (both hands p &lt; 0.001) and a remarkable increase in coherence in all frequency range compared to the generalized reduction observed in controls (both hands p &lt; 0.001). The Kullback&shy;&ndash;Leibler Divergence (KLD) of the Spectral Entropy between brain hemispheres was observed to increase in controls (right hand p = 0.01; left hand p = 0.015) and to decrease in PD patients (right hand p = 0.02; left hand p = 0.002) with motor activation. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the oscillatory activity of the different cortex areas within healthy brains is relatively independent of the rest. PD brains exhibit a stronger connectivity which grows during motor activation. The levodopa mitigates this anomalous performance

Machine Learning Approaches for Detecting Parkinson’s Disease from EEG Analysis: A Systematic Review

Background: Diagnosis of Parkinson&rsquo;s disease (PD) is mainly based on motor symptoms and can be supported by imaging techniques such as the single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or M-iodobenzyl-guanidine cardiac scintiscan (MIBG), which are expensive and not always available. In this review, we analyzed studies that used machine learning (ML) techniques to diagnose PD through resting state or motor activation electroencephalography (EEG) tests. Methods: The review process was performed following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. All publications previous to May 2020 were included, and their main characteristics and results were assessed and documented. Results: Nine studies were included. Seven used resting state EEG and two motor activation EEG. Subsymbolic models were used in 83.3% of studies. The accuracy for PD classification was 62&ndash;99.62%. There was no standard cleaning protocol for the EEG and a great heterogeneity in the characteristics that were extracted from the EEG. However, spectral characteristics predominated. Conclusions: Both the features introduced into the model and its architecture were essential for a good performance in predicting the classification. On the contrary, the cleaning protocol of the EEG, is highly heterogeneous among the different studies and did not influence the results. The use of ML techniques in EEG for neurodegenerative disorders classification is a recent and growing field